Orality in Yoru ̀ ba ́ films: A study of selected films of Aki ́ nwu ̀ mi ́ Is ̣ o ̣̀ la

that energises and drives the creative work. I conclude that I ̀ s ̣ o ̣̀ la ́ uses his creative ingenuity to re-awake and preserve Yoru ̀ ba ́ oral tradition in his films, which points to the fact that oral literature has a continued vitality for contemporary society


Introduction
In this article, I analyse the films Saworoidẹ (1999), Agogo Eèẁọ (2002) and Ẹ fuńṣ etań Aniẃuŕà (2005) (directed by Tunde Kelani) by the Nigerian scriptwriter Akińwumí Iṣ ọ la, with a specific focus on the oral genres he utilises in these films, which I approach as a form of intertextuality.I argue that he uses verbal arts as a powerful tool for the transmission of cultural values in his films.Firstly, I explain what I mean by cultural values and intertextuality before providing a brief overview of existing studies on Yorubá films.Then I proceed to analyse the ways in which various oral genres are utilised in the three films.

Terminology and relevant existing research
Film falls under the intangible aspect of human culture; it is an integral part of the expressive arts which comprise the literary arts, the plastic arts, and the music arts, hence it is taken as the set of traditions from which a person draws his or her sense of identity (Irele; Adeĺeḱe, "Culture, Art and Film in an African Society: An Evaluation").
From the foregoing, it can be observed that film as a cultural artifact reflects or shares the common meanings and values of a particular culture during a particular time.Therefore, more than any other entertainment form, films reflect the cultural and social experiences, and convey core cultural values of a society.Filmmakers write their stories from the common pool of the society where they belong.Different societies have several cultural practices which are mirrored/showcased to the world though films (Ekwuazi; Oguńle̩ ye̩ ).
According to Johnson (99), "Film is the most effective medium for promotion, propagation and preservation of culture.Many cultures of the world have used its potential to their advantage".Adesanya asserts that the British, American, Chinese, and Indian cultures have influenced some Nigerians and people of other countries who enjoy watching their films.Also, the cultures and verbal arts of the three major ethnic groups in Nigeriathat is, Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo-have been communicated to the world through Nigerian films.
Orality in Yorubá films: A study of selected films of Akińwumí Iṣ ọ laD espite technological innovations, orality still forms one of the aesthetic elements in the new media such as home video films as a result of the unending interface between orality and the literacy tradition.Using intertextuality as an approach, in this article I examine orality in selected films of Akińwumí Iṣ ọ la, with a view to showing how he uses verbal arts as a powerful tool for the transmission of cultural values.The selected films are Saworoidẹ (1999), Agogo Eèẁọ (2002) and Ẹ fuńṣ etań Aniẃuŕà (2005).The films were selected based on their preponderant featuring of oral narratives.My findings reveal that folktales, legends, songs, Ifá corpus, drumbeats, incantations, and panegyric are the Yorubá oral genres that Akińwumí Iṣ ọ lá incorporates into his films.One can infer from Iṣ ọ la' s films that there is an overlap between his oral culture and his creative work because culture is the active force that energises and drives the creative work.I conclude that Iṣ ọ lá uses his creative ingenuity to re-awake and preserve Yorubá oral tradition in his films, which points to the fact that oral literature has a continued vitality for contemporary society.Keywords: oral culture, preservation, intertextuality, Akińwumí Iṣ ọ la, film.
According to Durey (616), intertextuality is a coinage used by Julia Kristeva to discuss Mikhail Bhakti's texts as the interplay of writers, texts, and other texts.Abrams and Harpham (364) use intertextuality to signify the multiple ways in which any one literary text in fact consists of other texts, by means of its open or covert citations and allusions, its repetitions, and transformations of the formal and substantive features of earlier texts.This reveals the relationship between a writer, his works, and the influence of other works or texts on his style or content of his work.Shakib (123) defines intertextuality as the literal and effective presence in a text of another text.Allen opines that: "Text is a permutation of texts, an intertextuality in the space of a given text, in which several utterances, taken from other texts, intersect and neutralize one another" (35).
Yamasaki (2) asserts that the core idea of the theory is that texts, such as plays, novels, and films are always related to other texts in a way that produces multiple meanings.Bazin(qtd in Barthes), while discussing the issue of intertextuality in film, enunciates that there is no doubt that all films were, in principle, works of authors who at a certain time and with certain technical and aesthetic means had managed to create certain distinctive cinematic artwork (Barthes).Drama and fictional texts such as Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, Things Fall Apart, Arrow of God, Ẹ fuńṣ etań Aniẃuŕa, and Liśabi Agoǹgbo Akala-to mention but a few-have been adapted into films.
Adaptation, according to Hutcheon (6), is a form of intertextuality experienced differently by each reader.There are multiple sources available to scriptwriters; they may create an entirely new work from history, myth, pure fiction, or from his society; they may also decide to translate or adapt existing work which involves/requires modification, alteration, and recreation.The implication of this is that the scriptwriter is re-presenting the existing work in another form that will be most acceptable and accessible.Hyginus Ekwuazi's work centres on the emergence of films in Nigeria and provides information on the film concept and reality in Nigeria.Manthia Diawara dwells on popular culture and oral tradition in African films.He affirms that African film makers have deviated from foreign film culture by making use of cultural elements within their culture.Onyero Mgbejume focuses on the historical development of Nigerian films with its associated problems.He concludes that, if the stakeholders could play the game according to the rules, the film industry in Nigeria would thrive.Olagoke Alamú ("Trends in the Development of Yorubá Film: The First Decade (1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986))") focuses on trends in the development of the Yorubá film within the first ten years of its existence between 1976 and 1986, and discusses extensively the historical, development, and classification of Yorubá films, and also examines the aesthetics of the Yorubá video films ("Documenting the Yorubá Traditional Religious Festival for Posterity; Issues and Challenges").Adeĺeḱè ("Audience Reception of Yorubá Films: Ibadaǹ as a Case Study") carries out an analytical study of audience reception of Yorubá films in cinema houses.He submits that psychological and sociological factors affect the attitude of audiences of Yorubá films.Joseph Daíró looks at the Yorubá beliefs in predestination "omì ipiń" (water of destiny) where he uses a Yorubá film drama, a weekly television broadcast which exploits the theme of predestination as a case study.Adekunle Yusuf focuses on Adebaýọ Faĺetí on screen by exploring the different stages of Faĺeti's art from stage to television productions, and the era of home video films.He eulogises Faĺetí as a dramatist, novelist, and poet.
Akintunde Akińyẹ mí discusses oral literature, aesthetic transfer, and social vision in two Yorubá video films.He centres the article on the playwright's use of elements of oral literature in depicting the socio-political realities of contemporary Nigerian society.Sesan examines African aesthetics in two Yorubá language video films.He investigates the origin of aesthetics from the ancient (classical) period to the contemporary period and examines the use and effect of aesthetics in the selected films.Ureke and Tomaselli's work focuses on the transformation of African cinema to film services.The duo explore how African cinema can be examined in terms of a film services framework which includes both industrial criteria and ideological shifts as a way of deepening screen media studies in search for a more holistic value chain framework.In my 2019 article, I study the recreation of oral poetic genres in selected Yorubá home-video films.I conclude that, with the filmmakers' recreation of the Yorubá oral poetic genre in their films, they have been able to initiate continuity and change in the use of the Yorubá oral poetic genre.

Orality in three films of Akińwumí Iṣ ọ lá
This section has been organised according to genre.I indicate in which ways Iṣ ọ lá has incorporated the following oral genres: folktales, legends, songs, Ifá corpus, drumbeats, incantations, and panegyric.

Folktales
Yorubá people educate and entertain themselves though folktales and folktales represent the Yorubá philosophical way of thinking and serves as a vehicle of self-expression (Taiwo 38).Folktales are also deep in ideas, rich in expression, and enthralling to hear.The cultural content and the inclusion of songs and wise sayings in folktales make them entertaining and informative.Among the Yorubá people, folktales serve as cultural identity.It is a veritable tool for cultural transmission, character development, and historical education.Majasan (41) asserts that folktales are one of the most appropriate instruments of educating and acculturating the youth.Aligning with the position of Majasan, Awoniyi avers: "Stories, songs, myth and dancing were combined to stimulate the children's emotions, quicken their perceptions, and guide them as they explored, exploited and interpreted their environment.The objective of education was to make an individual an Ọ mọ luábi, to develop his personality and character and weave him (or her) harmoniously into the social fabric" (63).
Folktales cover a wide range of areas but the common types of folktales include fairy tales, fables, trickster tales, and why stories.They can reflect cultural, historical, geographical, mathematical, and political content and Yorubá folktales are heavily influenced by the people's worldview and traditions.Instances of folktales occur in Iṣ ọ la's films.There is an example from Ṣ aworoidẹ in which Adebomí and his wife Adedigba narrate a folktale that has to do with a hunter and his dog to their son.According to them, whenever the hunter found himself in a difficult situation, he would summon his dog to come to his aid.When the dog was stolen, the hunter was devastated.The hunter succeeded in getting his dog back because of the cordial relationship that existed between the two of them.The lesson that can be deduced from the folktale that is embedded in the film is that nobody is an island and that we need one another.What the filmmaker is canvassing for is cordial relationship.Through the folktale, Iṣ ọ lá provides an avenue for African children to receive instruction through their mother tongue, thereby learning to love the mental heritage of their people and the natural and necessary expression of their heritage which is the language.

Legends
A legend is a story handed down through generations which is believed to be historical.O̩ late̩ jú (85) opines that legendary tales are about the lineage history of a particular family or personage as told orally by their progenitors, the bards, or as contained in their lineage poetry.The legends once lived many years ago as human beings in the various communities and were deified after death as gods and goddesses as a mark of appreciation for their contribution to the development of their people and community.
Legends are largely extended oral histories of some unusual humans-that is a filius or a filia figure-who are imbued with superhuman, heroic qualities, such as uncommon or unique carriage, courage, and pedigree.Legends are stories of men and women who contributed significantly to advancing the cause of their people.Examples of these legends in Yorubá society are: Basọ run Oguńmọ lá of Ibadaǹ, Ṣ odẹ kẹ of Egbaland, Iỳaĺode Tinuúbú of Ẹ gbaĺand, and Ẹ fuńṣ etańAniẃuŕà the Iỳaĺode of Ibadaǹ land Dasylva (139).
In the film Ẹ fuńṣ etań Aniẃuŕa, reference is made to the great warriors of Ibadaǹ land.These are Iba Oluýọ le, Iba Afọ kọ ja, Baloǵun Ibiḱuńle, Basọ run Oguńmọ la, and Aàrẹ Latoòśà whose heroic deeds were brought to the fore.An example of a legend from the film E̩ fuńs̩ etań Aniẃuŕà is that of Baloǵun Ibiḱuńle, a renowned farmer and warrior in Ibadaǹ land.He quickly rose to the rank of Baloǵun of Ibadaǹ during the reign of Baaĺe̩ Oyes̩ iĺé in 1851.Ibiḱuńle's regime as the generalissimo of Ibadaǹ was characterised by many wars.Ibadaǹ won all the wars with his expertise and he was responsible for the large number of vassal states brought under Ibadaǹ's hegemony.BaloǵunIbiḱuńlé was very tireless in warfare and, as such, fought gallantly throughout the breadth and length of Yorubaland.As a result of his military might and restlessness, he became dreaded and no town wanted his encounter.Ibiḱuńlé was therefore likened to a formidable power that shook the whole world of his time.He was, however, given a befitting burial as a legend.As a mark of respect to this great man, a major street in Ibadaǹ, from Mo̩ ko̩ lá roundabout going through his palace to Orita-Me̩ rin junction, was named after Ibiḱuńle by the O̩ yo̩ state government.
The legend Baloǵun Ibiḱuńle, as reflected in the film E̩ fuńs̩ etań Aniẃuŕa, is endowed with supernatural and heroic deeds like courage and unique carriage.He contributed immensely to advancing the cause of his people.Therefore, the story of this legend was used by the scriptwriter as a potent weapon to boost the morale of the society as well as an instrument to safeguard its communal security.It was also used in the film to implant or inculcate sound moral values in the minds of the people.The legacies of oral tradition are therefore documented in motion pictures by the film makers who are believed to be custodians of their societal history.

Songs
In Yorubá tradition, almost no ceremony occurs without a corresponding song attached to it.Different rites of passage are marked with songs and dancing (Adeýẹ mí 58).Singing songs during important ceremonies is a way of life and has become an undying cultural legacy of the people.Adeýẹ mí (58) classifies Yorubá songs into eight categories, namely: ceremonial (orinayẹ yẹ ), religious (orinajẹ mẹ siǹ), children's (orinọ mọ de), war (orinogun), workreinforcement (orinamuṣ́ eýa), folktale (orinalọ ), proverbial (orinoẁe), and invective (orineèbu).Euba and Adeọ́ lá also agree that songs are described by their functions-that is, the singing is described by a function to which it is associated.Specific songs accompany specific occasions and songs are mainly accomplished with some musical instrument such as idiophones, chordophones, membranophones, and airophones.
Songs serve functional purposes.Entertainment comes first among the goals of performance.However, the use of songs for therapeutic, psychological, and emotional wellbeing is exemplified in lullaby, a kind of song used to lull children to sleep (Hamzat 163).It is also effective for the emotional wellbeing between lovers.The use of songs in fanning the ember of discord is also rampant and it can also incite groups and individuals against each other.There is fluidity in song in Yorubá culture, and recitation could also be concluded with song.
Iṣ ọ lá used songs extensively in the selected films under study to drive home his points.In S̩ aworoidẹ and Agogo Eèẁọ , he showcases nine proverbial songs, including the following examples from the films: The first song from the film S̩ aworo Ide̩ is a protest song by the people of Jogbo town that has been under the servitude and tyrannical reign of the king Onijogbo.They used the song to ridicule the indiscipline king and chiefs of the town; the song is used by the people of the town as a weapon to express their mind so as to curb the excesses and unruly behaviour of their leaders.The second song from the film Agogo Eèẁo̩ is sung to expose their fraudulent leaders who squander the money meant for the people.The two songs expose the suppressive and subversive posture of rulers of Jogbo town on those they govern.The songs are therefore employed by the filmmaker as an accompaniment of the element of oral tradition in achieving the theme(s) of these films.

Ifá corpus
Scholars like Abiḿbọ lá (Ifa: An Exposition of Ifá Literary Corpus), Olatuńji, and Olaĺẹ yẹ assert that Ifá is one of the most important Yorubá deities.Ifá is believed to have been sent by Olodumare, the Almighty God, to use his profound wisdom to put the earth in order.The belief of the Yorubá concerning the great wisdom of Ifá is manifested in some of the praise names they give to him.Two of such praise names, according to Abiḿbọ lá (Ifa), are Akeŕe-finu-sọ gbọ n (The small person with a mind full of wisdom) and Akọ ni-lọ raǹ-bi-iỳekan-ẹ ni (He who gives one wise advice like one's relative) (9).It is this great wisdom of Ifá that gives him a high position among the other Yorubá gods.
Without Ifa, the importance of the other Yorubá gods would not be appreciated.If a man is being punished by the other gods, he can only know this by consulting Ifa.If a community is to make sacrifice to one of its gods, it can only know this by consulting Ifa.Thus, Ifá is the only active mouthpiece of Yorubá traditional religion taken as a whole.As a mouthpiece, Ifá serves to popularise the other Yorubá gods, and to immortalise them (Abiḿbọ la, "The place of Ifá in Yorubá tranditional religions"3-4).Ifá co-ordinates the work of all the gods in the Yorubá pantheon with his great wisdom, knowledge, and understanding.He serves as a 'middleman' between the other gods and the people, and between the people and their ancestors.He is the mouthpiece and the public relations officer of all the other Yorubá gods (Abiḿbọ la, "Place of Ifa" 4).The wisdom and understanding of Ifá is believed to cover not only the past but also the present and the future.According to Olatuńjí (111), by consulting Ifa, the Yorubá find meaning and purpose in the past, the present, and the future.In traditional Yorubá society, the Yorubá consult Ifá before they do anything important and in all the major affairs of life: with the birth of a new child, in sickness, in contemplating a journey, in choice of a life partner, and at any other important turn in their lives.
This is an example from Otuà́ mejì in S̩ aworoidẹ :

White cloth longs for indigo dye
The first part of a statement cries for the second Divination was performed for the offspring of Alańakańesu The day he was crying for all good things When one comes from the deep it comes straight to the path May all blessings come to Jogbo When water is poured on the head it runs down to the feet May all blessings come to Jogbo As an age-long practice in Yorubaĺand, Ifá is normally consulted before a king is enthroned but in S̩ aworoidẹ the reverse is the case because the kingmakers install a king without consulting Ifá and without performing the necessary rites.Due to this act, the town is witnessing a lot of problems that had not been seen before.The chief in the end consults the Ifá oracle for a way out of the pandemonium that the people are experiencing.The Babalaẃo offers prayers of blessings for the town of Jogbo and normalcy returns to the community.In the film S̩ aworoidẹ , Iṣ ọ lá makes it clear that Ifá literary corpus is the repository of Yorubá culture inside which the Yorubá perception of their own historical expertise and understanding of their environment can be ascertained.In relating belief practices to films, Is̩ o̩ lá makes selective use of resources from the people's oral tradition.

Drumbeats
Graphic or phonic substances are not the only means of communication; we can also communicate through semiotic-symbols or signals.One of the means of communication among the Yorubá is the talking drum.To understand the signal of any talking drum, one must be familiar with the language of the immediate community.A person without the knowledge or understanding of the Yorubá language will find it difficult to interpret the signal of the Yorubá talking drum because sounds produced by the drum would not be meaningful.The language of the drum differs from human speech in that the latter is articulated but the former is not.The implication of this is that drum sounds have a lower level of structural distinctiveness than the human language per se.A drum is manipulated by man to produce sound initiating speech tones.Therefore, the message given by the drum is always ambiguous because it is based on tones and rhythms (Ajayi, "The Talking Drum" 575).The Yorubá drum performs both rhythmic and communicative functions.It may also serve as therapy for troubled minds and may give warning, signal danger, or mobilise people to do some kind of work.A lot of people find it very difficult to interpret the obscure message of the drum because of the narrow means by which the drummer communicates his thoughts, which are merely tones and rhythms.
Due to the fact that only few people can decipher the language of the drum, there is ambiguity or multiplicity of meanings.In Yorubá traditional society, drumming is a family profession, which requires skill and perfection that cannot be attained without proper tutelage (Ajayi, "Talking Drum").Therefore, a son in Yorubá society whose father is a drummer learns the art from childhood from his father and thereafter inherits his father's skill.In the contemporary Yorubá society, drumming is no longer the profession of the Aỳaǹ family; interested individuals can now learn the art of drumming.
In S̩ aworoidẹ when Adebomí and Adedigba are mysteriously killed by an unidentified person, the drum is used magically to communicatively commandeer Aỳańniýi to come back home as a matter of urgency because he is the only living person in the Aỳań family that can unravel the mysteries that surround the Aỳaǹgalú drum.He is summoned thus: On hearing the drumbeat, Aỳańniýì deciphers the hidden message embedded in the communication and immediately leaves all he is doing and heads home to obey the clarion call.Iṣ ọ lá uses drumbeats to showcase Yorubá cultural values and to establish the parable of the drum as the voice of the people.He therefore uses traditional elements symbolically and metaphorically instead of being mirrored slavishly.These therefore appeal to the viewers and win their passion for the filmic text.

Incantations
Works on incantations include those of Onibon-Okuta, Fabuǹmi, Fadiṕe, Bacom, Beier, Ogunba, Olatuńji, and Ọ pẹ feỳitimi.According to Olatuńji, incantation is a restricted poetic form, cultic and mystical in its expectations (139).Olatuńjí further affirms that the moment incantation is obtained it becomes an individual's personal property.It is therefore guarded jealously by the owner, for to reveal it to others is to lay oneself bare to the attack of foes.Incantation can be chanted or recited and entails uttering of words according to a formula and in a set order.For an incantation to be effective, certain taboos should be strictly adhered to and it may be necessary to take some actions such as tasting certain concoctions or chewing alligator pepper which serves as a catalyst.In Yorubá society, four beliefs underlie the use and practice of incantation: the belief in sympathies, belief in the magic of names, belief in origin, and belief in the magic power of the spoken word.Baḿgbośé classifies incantations into five types, namely, ọ fọ , ogede, aỳajọ , aàśań, and ohuǹifa, which are all incantatory poetry.Ọ pẹ feỳitimi, under terminological underpinning, re-classifies incantations into four types.He asserts that Ohuǹ Ifá is not a genre per se, but rather a combination of all the verbal legacies which Ọ ruńmilà left behind for his followers (213).Incantation, therefore, is a personal poem, closely associated with a user who directs the powers he has invoked to carry out his desires and observing all the taboos and rites associated with the incantation.Below is an example of incantation in Iṣ ọ la's film Ẹ fuńṣ etań Aniẃuŕa: After the demise of Aẁẹ ro, Itaẃuyì decides to kill Ẹ fuńṣ etań with a cutlass as revenge for losing his two female friends and confidant to the cold hand of death in quick succession through Iỳaĺode.Ẹ fuńṣ etań, being a powerful woman, recites the incantations above to render Itaẃuyì powerless and to subject him to her will through the power of the spoken word.She also wards off the evil designs of Itaẃuyì and becomes victorious.One can infer from the incantation made by Ẹ fuńṣ etań that incantation is closely associated with a user who directs the powers she has invoked to carry out her own desires.Through his work, Iṣ ọ lá has therefore established the Yorubá belief in the magic power of the spoken word.

Panegyric
Panegyric, a form of praise poem, is universal and has been explored by critics such as Abbott, Sweet, Sperl, Smith, and Finnegan respectively.Finnegan says that panegyric, in its specialised form, is: "[…] a type of court poetry and one of the most developed and elaborate poetic genres of Africa.It seems to go with a particular ethos, stress on royal or aristocratic power, and an admiration for military" (111).
In the film Ẹ fuńṣ etań Aniẃuŕà the court poet eulogises the king and the chief with the praise name of the Ibadaǹ indigene thus: Ibadaǹ that heard the sound of war and refused to run They heard that war was close by but not bothered The town of Ojo, the town of AjaỳiT he town of Oguńmọ lá the valiant at war front The town that is hospitable to the indigenes and strangers Ibadaǹ that refrained from fighting until the predecessors were enslaved The offspring of he that ate Oro as supper and ate snails to satisfaction The offspring of him that uses shell to make pap Ibadaǹ is not a friend to him who doesn't take him to war Ibadaǹ where you ask before you enter A place where the thief is exonerated Homage to Ibadaǹ hill Any town who dares Ibadaǹ's mettle will regret such boldness The Fuĺaǹí who tries it was disgraced together with his horse Due thanks to you great warriors In the panegyric of Ibadaǹ, the chanter reveals the prowess in warfare that the Ibadaǹ people are known for.He also accentuates the audaciousness of the Ibadaǹ people; they are eulogised as fearless, bold, and tactical at the war front.The panegyric no doubt stirs pride and confidence in the king and his chiefs who are Ibadaǹ indigenes because their fierceness in battle was brought to the fore.Panegyric is deliberately used by Iṣ ọ lá in Ẹ fuńṣ etań Aniẃuŕà for aesthetics and for arousal of strong emotions.

Conclusion
In this article I have examined orality in three of Iṣ ọ la's films, with a view to showing how he uses verbal arts as a powerful tool for the transmission of cultural values in his films.I found that folktales, legends, songs, Ifá corpus, drumbeats, incantations, and panegyric are the Yorubá oral genres that Iṣ ọ lá incorporates.One can infer from Iṣ ọ la's films that there is an overlap between his oral culture and his creative work because culture is the active force that energises and drives creative work.I conclude that Iṣ ọ lá uses his creative ingenuity to re-awake and preserve Yorubá oral tradition in his films, which points to the fact that oral literature has a continued vitality for contemporary society.